The paper examines the problems of anthropogenesis in the light of the system paradigm. The purpose of the study is to improve the tools of system economics. As a hypothesis, the author formulates provisions according to which there is a balance between man and the real world created by him. The subject of the study is the conditions of anthropogenesis in various socio- economic systems. For this purpose, the author considers knowledge as an immaterial force in the processes of material transformation. The topic of subjectivity, the conditions of assembly and disintegration of the whole into parts, in which man acts as a super- complex quantum-mechanical observer of complexity, included in the synergistic flow of interweaving, are studied in detail. The method of synthesis of the systemic representation of the world and the provisions of the systemic economy, which is the main one in the work, allowed to formulate methodological additions for future economic research. In particular, a theoretical statement is developed that provides for the leveling of methodological subjectivism in the design of economic reality by a tetrad representation. The emerging term «tetrad thinking» is proposed to be used in scientific circulation together with the Man remaining in the economy and moving in a synergistic flow of increasing complexity. The above acts as a scientific novelty for this work. The author's view of spatio-temporal sweeps implies the presence of their center –  a person who reflects and makes a choice. Human activity in the economy is analyzed from the standpoint of various types of scientific rationality. The «human» component is determined in the formation of new spatio-temporal «windows». The assertion about the insufficiency of the transfer of one information component in evolutionary theories is substantiated –  the human ability to process chaos is also required not only in the creation of new economic worlds, but also in overcoming the anti-entropic leap in the existing hyper-complicated world. The provisions proposed in the work, aimed at improving the tools of the system economy, are limited by the breadth of the cognitive subject in economic reality. This creates prospects for further developments to search for the interrelations of knowledge forms with the boundaries of socio-economic systems and their stability.

Machines undergoing degradation are widely studied in reliability theory. However, the constructed models of the degradation process cannot be applied to assess the market value of used equipment. We solve this problem using a new mathematical model of the degradation process. In this model, the condition of the machine is characterized by the intensity of variable benefits (the market value of the work performed in a small unit of time minus the variable part of the operating costs). The degradation of the machine is described by a complex Poisson process. During operation, the machine is subjected to hidden failures that occur with constant intensity. After failure, the operating characteristics of the machine are subjected to a deteriorating jump. In our model, it is assumed that in this case the intensity of the variable benefits is multiplied by a random decreasing coefficient having a power distribution. We specify the limit conditions of the machine in which it should be disposed of. We construct the dependence of the market value of the machine on its condition. It can be used if it is possible to measure the benefits of the machine, and the market value of the new machine and the scrap value of the machines are known. Much more often, the appraiser knows only about the age of used machine. In this case, he can use information about the average service life of the machines and the coefficient of variation of this service life. This information allows him to set the values of the main parameters of the model. However, machines of the same age may be in different states, and therefore it is only possible to offer formulas for estimating their average market value. The constructed model also makes it possible to take into account the impact of inflation by properly adjusting the discount rate.

Development of the Russian production of machine tool products is a necessary condition for ensuring the technological security of the country. To increase the competitiveness and restore the lost positions of the Russian machine tool industry in the domestic market, as well as the subsequent formation and increase of export potential, the federal project «Development of machine tool industry production», «Strategy for the development of the machine tool industry for the period up to 2035» were developed. The Strategy indicates that in Russian reality, the application of development models used by the leading countries is not possible. The Strategy actually leaves open the question of the Russian model for the development of the machine tool industry. The purpose of the article is to show that organizational and economic factors can be crucial for the successful development of the Russian machine tool industry, to justify a number of appropriate measures to implement the Strategy. It is shown that government policy should favor the realization of economies of scale by the Russian machine tool builders by increasing their specialization, which is especially important given the limited capacity of the Russian market of machine tool products. The deepening of specialization implies the expansion of cooperation between the participants of this market. The procedure for providing state support to projects in machine tool construction requires revision. In order to reduce dependence on imported elements of the component base of machine tools, it is necessary not only to implement targeted government funding for relevant research and development, production establishment, but also to develop cooperation between the participants of the machine tool industry, going beyond the established integrated structures. At the regional level, a significant contribution can be made to link research centers to the production centers, and to increase the level of interaction between Russian consumers and manufacturers of products at the stage of its development. In addition to addressing the bottlenecks in the industry, it is important to have a base for searching fundamental and applied research in the future. The state is called to initiate the formation of such a base and ensure its financing.

The article analyzes the factors affecting the profitability of the economy of the Russian regions. These factors are represented by the main economic characteristics of the regional economy, reflecting the structure of the economy, level of development, stock‑intensity etc. The methodology of analysis includes two stages: first, the identification of variables directly related to profitability on GRP; second, the construction of a nonlinear regression model using the identified directly related variables as explanatory factors. As a result, for GRP profitability we obtained a sufficiently accurate nonlinear regression model, which includes indices of extractive and manufacturing industries, as well as GRP per capita. The obtained model allows to identify conditions on GRP per capita and industry indices, under which profitability on GRP will decrease. This allows to demonstrate that at different stages of economic development, different sectoral structure of the regional economy is required to maximize profitability. In particular, in highly developed regions, the development of traditional production industries corresponds to the decreasing profitability. The results demonstrate that economic strategies adaptive to specific regional characteristics are necessary when targeting profitability by GRP.

The introduction of such tools as taxes and fees fixed by regulatory legal acts allow for environmental regulation, and the development of tax incentives in the field of environmental insurance will reduce the negative impact of production on the environment. In world practice, the environmental tax is widely used as an instrument of the environmental mechanism. Therefore, in the conditions of the new economic space, the development of voluntary environmental insurance is relevant. The implementation of research tasks was achieved on the basis of an analysis of the basic laws in the field of legal foundations and taxation of environmental insurance, reports on the activities of insurance companies in Russia. A special place in the study is occupied by the materials of a large international insurance company AIG, which also has an office in Russia in terms of implementing integrated environmental insurance in practice. The methodological basis of the research was such methods as comparative legal, computational and analytical, graphical and logical. The state of environmental insurance in Russia and abroad, the degree of use of tools to stimulate voluntary environmental insurance in Russia, the reasons for the insufficient use of voluntary environmental insurance by economic entities to reduce environmental risks are examined. The study of the legislation in the field of insurance revealed that it does not sufficiently define the provisions on the application of environmental insurance. It is also determined that insurance premiums for voluntary environmental insurance are not provided for in income tax expenses, which hinders the development of such insurance in Russia.

The approaches of stimulating organizations to use environmental insurance through recognition of the amount of insurance premiums for voluntary environmental insurance in income tax expenses are proposed.

The development of international trade is accompanied by a change in the instruments used to protect the domestic market and national producers. The WTO's aim at reducing the level of tariff protection have led to an increased use of non-tariff measures, which are not always declared as a protective tool. In particular, in recent years the use of such a tool as economic sanctions has increased significantly. The purpose of the paper is to gain an understanding of the role of economic sanctions in international trade. Analyzing approaches to the classification of non-tariff measures proposed at different periods of time, the author identifies their advantages and disadvantages, and also assesses the possibility of using such classifications to identify economic sanctions. It is noted that nowadays the key feature of economic sanctions is their political motivation. The work examines the main aspects of economic sanctions applied against Iran, North Korea and Russia. It is emphasized that, due to the high level of globalization, modern sanctions affect all participants in international trade, regardless of their relationship to the conflict that served as the reason for the application of such protective measures. An example of the impact of economic sanctions on third parties not involved in the conflict are secondary sanctions. The author suggests that the creation of an international independent body dealing with issues of challenging secondary sanctions could contribute to the formation of a similar body whose powers would cover issues of all types of economic sanctions. The barrier to the creation of such a body is the persisting protectionist tendencies in international trade. The author comes to the conclusion that the analysis of economic sanctions is highly significant for the current stage of development of international trade.

The stated problem of changes in spending the time budget of a modern economically active person is relevant in terms of the relationship between work and rest time through the dynamics and structure of time expenditures, which determines the quality of the human potential of the national economic system. Using national statistical groupings of a number of countries having the prominent positions in the cluster of high-tech industries, with the help of traditional methods of correlation analysis, some new ratios of time expenditures were revealed, distinguished by optimality in the structure and dynamics of spending the time budget of workers in the context of specific sections. General trends and differences of the compared countries in time budget sections, the share of time spent on work; non-working time associated with work; free time and leisure time of employees of high-tech cluster companies are shown. Particular attention is paid to the mutual influence of the division of the time budget of different countries, which is determined by fluctuations in time expenditures in the matrix of paired correlation coefficients. The results obtained reflect the influence of technologization and value socio-cultural transformation of workers in the studied cluster of economic sectors of the compared countries on the dynamics and structure of time budget spending, which reflects the change in social relations in the context of changing social structures.

The article examines the development of international trade theories in the 20^th and 21^st centuries, starting from classical and neoclassical theories and culminating in new approaches that take into account the contemporary realities of the global economy. The primary focus is on the evolution of theories, beginning with the works of Swedish economists E. Heckscher and B. Ohlin, who laid the foundation for the factor proportions theory. The further development of international trade theory is associated with the works of W. Stolper and P. Samuelson, who, in their Stolper–Samuelson theorem, established a connection between factor prices and the demand for goods under free trade. The article also examines approaches to international trade developed by such scholars as B. Balassa, H. Grubel, C. Lancaster, and E. Helpman. This article also explores the modern theory of international trade that was developed in the late 20^th and early 21^st centuries, closely linked to the contributions of P. Krugman. Unlike classical and neoclassical models, this new theory is based on the idea of monopolistic competition and takes into account both the preferences of economic agents and the effects of economies of scale. Krugman’s framework suggests the existence of monopolistic competition, characterized by markets with a wide variety of differentiated products, where firms lack significant market power. The article explains the progression of international trade theories, moving from classical models focused on comparative advantages and factor endowments to more advanced and realistic models that consider imperfect competition and other contemporary economic realities.

The article examines the political, ideological, socio- economic, cultural factors, that demonstrate the differences and similarities between two groups of countries – the group of the «collective West» and a group of countries, ready to resist the expansion of the West and its claims to global hegemony (the leaders are China and Russia). An analysis of the processes of formation of these groups and their confrontation shows that one of the most important factors determining these processes are ideological priorities and attitudes. For a group of the West, this is individualistic liberalism and the ideology of a unipolar world, for an alternative grouping – the ideology of statehood and the emerging ideology of a multipolar world. The article analyzes the ideological and materialistic factors that gave rise to the separation of a number of countries from the entire set of Western European countries with their transformation into a capitalist system (a process closely related to the formation and affirmation of the ideology of liberalism). As a result, the confrontation between the countries of liberalism and statehood, which today is usually attributed only to the grouping of all Western countries as a whole and the association of countries of non-Western civilizations, for a long time was the basis of multidimensional differences and confrontation between different countries of Western Europe. This confrontation is illustrated by «portraits» of the social structure of typical representatives of both groups of countries – Great Britain and Germany. An analysis of the processes of formation of groupings and their confrontation shows that they are not only the West response to the growing influence of communist ideas in the world and the creation of a socialist state in 1917, but are the result of long development of Western and Eastern civilizations and their divergence. Such a civilizational divergence was for long a characteristic feature of the Western European countries. The influence of these civilizational factors must be taken into account when developing political and economic strategies.